I have been spending the last few days thinking rather intensely about the rules of hyphenation and how the placement of a single comma can change the meaning of a sentence. Yes. Manuscript edits. If I seem a bit fuzzy, that's why.
So I thought this might be a good week to talk about dreams. Today I'll talk a bit about actual dreaming, and on Wednesday we can chat about dreams in stories and writing (and maybe a little about the meaning of dreams? Yes?).
There are a lot of myths about dreams. We all dream in black and white (nope). Our dreams only last a few seconds (some last over half an hour). Lots of people don't dream at all (there's some evidence that folks who have parietal lobe injuries lose the ability to dream, but apart from that ... we all do, even if we don't remember). If you die in a dream, you'll die for realzzz! (nah ... I'm living proof that one's untrue)
Another myth is that people only dream during the phase of sleep called REM (rapid eye movement). That's not true, either! There's plenty of evidence that we dream during non-REM sleep, too, but the nature of the dreams is different. During non-REM sleep, we tend to have more mundane, repetitive dreams, ones that are more grounded in everyday life. There's speculation (and research) that these non-REM dreams can help us rehearse or practice things we've learned so that we perform better when we're awake. In addition, there's some research to suggest these dreams involve a bit more positive and neutral emotion than REM dreams.
During REM sleep, dreams are more emotional and perceptual. These dreams can be bizarre or nightmarish. Some sleep researchers believe that while non-REM dreams are rehearsal and processing of the present or past, REM dreams are more speculative, like a safe way for the brain to experience future possibilities. Some studies have demonstrated that REM dreams can result in greater creativity in specific tasks/endeavors, but there are also studies that show that people with certain types of depression have a lot more REM sleep than non-depressed people--REM sleep involves activation of the amygdala, the processing center for intense negative emotions.
This is really just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to dreams. The research is getting more refined and more fascinating as the years go by. One thing they haven't quite figured out, though--how to really eavesdrop on people's dreams. You know how they do it? They have these sleep studies where they wait until the participant is in a particular phase of sleep, and then they wake him up and ... ask him what he was dreaming about.
So ... what are your dreams like? Do you have vivid, memorable dreams, or are you one of those folks who doesn't remember your dreams at all? Do you want to share a dream or two with us? Here, I'll start: I sometimes dream I can fly, except I can never do it very well, and so I spend most of the dream trying to will myself off the ground and hovering, like, a few inches off the pavement. At some point, something starts chasing me, and I'm simultaneously annoyed and panicked because I know this flying thing doesn't work so well for me, but it's all I've got, so usually I end up (sort of, clumsily, with lots of fits and starts) flying away just ahead of the menacing presence (which I can never see, by the way).
There.
Your turn.
And after you're done telling us about your dream life, please go visit Lydia for her Medical Monday post (leech therapy! Aaaah! Talk about nightmare fodder) and Laura for her Mental Health Monday post (about whether it's normal to have imaginary friends ... or not).
We have been conducting seminars on parenting in various schools and one of the greatest concerns raised by parents has to do with sleepovers. Many parents wonder whether or not to allow their children to go for sleepovers or to host them. Their main concern is the safety of their children during such sleepovers. We decided to source for knowledge on the same and here is what we have to share with you.
According to Pattie Fitzgerald, founder of Safely Ever After, sleepovers are part of a wonderful childhood, and many parents would like their own kids to be able to enjoy the same. Yet, they can also be a slippery slope just by their very nature, and it’s certainly appropriate for parents to have legitimate concerns. There have been stories about children being molested while at a sleepover while in others, children enjoy without anything bad ever happening. The answer to whether or whether not to have a sleepover is both a ‘yes’ and a ‘no’. It all depends with YOU and what you are most comfortable with!
Sleepovers can provide a perpetrator easier access to a child than a typical play-date during the day. This is because once children are in their beds or sleeping bags, there is a quiet, vulnerable atmosphere when children can be caught off-guard if approached by another adult, or possibly even the older sibling of their friend. In such an environment, a child might be less likely to shout out for help, or even yell out a good, strong “STOP IT!”, for fear of waking the others. The child may feel “trapped” and not know how to get away from the perpetrator. Also, during a sleepover, there may be more of an opportunity for a molester to victimize a child, simply because they can wait until everyone else is asleep. For this reason, it is important to talk specifically with your child about sleepover issues, before you make your decision.
Is the solution "No Sleepovers- Ever?"
That’s one way to solve the problem and it’s certainly a parent’s right to ban sleepovers if you choose. But, some parents may feel differently based on their own experiences or parenting styles. They may want to allow occasional sleepovers depending on certain circumstances. That’s okay too, provided you arm your children with clear safety instructions before ever allowing them to spend the night at another home.
Safeguarding a Sleep Over- A Parents Role.
Before allowing your child to spend the night at any friend’s home, you will need to have specific conversations regarding “good touch/bad touch/confusing touch.” You’ll need to pose some “what if” questions, to be sure your child knows how to react to anything that feels uncomfortable or “yucky.” There are many variables which can determine if a household is safe for a sleepover. You might be comfortable letting your child spend the night at one friend’s home, yet another home may be completely out of the question.
Run through the check list below
This will help you evaluate if this sleepover is a “safe scenario” or not. Consider who else may be at that home… for example, other relatives or adult friends? Is the older sibling also having a friend sleep over, do the parents have the same feelings that you do regarding the use of alcohol or other substances – particularly when children are around?
Do you know everyone who lives at the home?
Does anyone at this home give you an uncomfortable or “uh-oh” feeling?
Will the parents be home or are they having a babysitter in for the night? (If so, who is the sitter and what do you know about them?)
Are other children going to spend the night as well?
Are the supervising parents having their own adult friends over?
Will the children be staying in all night or is there an outing or activity planned for earlier in the evening (such as dinner out, bowling, or a movie)?
Will your child need to take a bath there? If so, who will be helping them? (Note: the smartest choice is for the child to bathe at home before going).
Have you told your child that they can call you at anytime, no matter what, if they feel uncomfortable or scared and that you’ll pick them up right away? *Even in the middle of the night!
Are you able to discuss safety concerns with the supervising parent(s) without worrying about what they might think of you?
Do the other parents make you feel guilty for asking questions, or try to minimize your concerns by teasing you or not taking you seriously?
Is your child generally able to speak up for themselves when they feel uncomfortable or uneasy?
Have you taught your child to trust their instincts and to listen to their own “inner voice”?
Have you discussed what to do if someone tries to touch them in an uncomfortable or unsafe manner?
5 Safety tips for kids away from home
1. Assess your child's age
There's no magic age where kids stop being homesick. However, the personality and needs of your child should help you determine at what age kids are ready for a slumber party away from home. The most important thing to consider is your child's safety, so it's up to you to judge whether he or she is capable of making safe decisions under someone else's supervision.
2. Invite the friend over first
Daytime play dates will give you a chance to meet the kid your child wants to have a sleepover with before you send her off to spend the night. Watch and see how the children interact with one another prior to agreeing to any slumber party plans.
3. Meet the parents
Either during drop off, at the sports field during little league games or at a daytime play date, schedule some face time with the adults who are hosting the sleepover prior to the get together. This will give you a chance to catch any red flags or give you peace of mind about your child's nocturnal adventure.
4. Lay out the ground rules
Don't be shy -- let the hosting parents know your child safety rules and supervision requirements for your child. Remember to offer info on anything about your youngster that will pertain to the overnight plans, such as any fears of the dark or food allergies. Also remind your child of your family's rules before he or she heads off to have fun.
5. Create a code word
Develop a word that your kiddo can use as code if he or she becomes uncomfortable at a slumber party and wants to go home. Whether it's a child safety issue like domestic violence or a social issue like drinking or a video game that violates your family's rules, a no questions asked policy when this code word is used will help keep you and your child at ease.
Overall, slumber parties away from home are something that are good for children and parents alike, fostering independence for children and helping you to let go of the reigns as your child grows, as long as you are mindful of basic child safety standards. However, note that setting these sleepover safety guidelines early on will likely lead to less resistance by teens down the road, so start early and send your kiddo off for some overnight fun, If you both so please!
Warm regards from the Nairobi Parenting Clinic Team.
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Insomnia is difficulty getting to sleep or staying asleep for long enough to feel refreshed the next morning, even though you've had enough opportunity to sleep.
With insomnia, you usually awaken feeling unrefreshed, which takes a toll on your ability to function during the day. Insomnia can sap not only your energy level and mood but also your health, work performance and quality of life.
How much sleep is enough varies from person to person. Most adults need seven to eight hours a night.Many adults experience insomnia at some point, but some people have long-term (chronic) insomnia. Insomnia may be the primary problem, or it may be secondary due to other causes, such as a disease or medication.
Types of Insomnia
There are two types of insomnia: primary insomnia and secondary insomnia.
Primary insomnia: Primary insomnia means that a person is having sleep problems that are not directly associated with any other health condition or problem.
Secondary insomnia: Secondary insomnia means that a person is having sleep problems because of something else, such as a health condition (like asthma, depression, arthritis, cancer, or heartburn);pain; medication they are taking; or a substance they are using (like alcohol).
Symptoms of Insomnia
These include:
Difficulty falling asleep at night
Awakening during the night
Awakening too early
Not feeling well rested after a night's sleep
Daytime tiredness or sleepiness
Irritability, depression or anxiety
Difficulty paying attention, focusing on tasks or remembering
Increased errors or accidents
Tension headaches
Distress in the stomach and intestines (gastrointestinal tract)
Ongoing worries about sleep
Someone with insomnia will often take 30 minutes or more to fall asleep and may get only six or fewer hours of sleep for three or more nights a week over a month or more.
Causes of Insomnia
Common causes of Insomnia include:
Stress.Concerns about work, school, health or family can keep your mind active at night, making it difficult to sleep. Stressful life events — such as the death or illness of a loved one, divorce, or a job loss — may lead to insomnia.
Anxiety.Everyday anxieties as well as more-serious anxiety disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder, may disrupt your asleep. Worry about being able to go to sleep can make it harder to fall asleep.
Depression.You might either sleep too much or have trouble sleeping if you're depressed. Insomnia often occurs with other mental health disorders as well.
Medical conditions.If you have chronic pain, breathing difficulties or a need to urinate frequently, you might develop insomnia. Examples of conditions linked with insomnia include arthritis, cancer, heart failure, lung disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), overactive thyroid, stroke, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.
Change in your environment or work schedule.Travel or working a late or early shift can disrupt your body's circadian rhythms, making it difficult to sleep. Your circadian rhythms act as an internal clock, guiding such things as your sleep-wake cycle, metabolism and body temperature.
Poor sleep habits.Poor sleep habits include an irregular sleep schedule, stimulating activities before bed, an uncomfortable sleep environment, and use of your bed for activities other than sleep or sex.
Medications.Many prescription drugs can interfere with sleep, including some antidepressants, heart and blood pressure medications, allergy medications, stimulants (such as Ritalin), and corticosteroids. Many over-the-counter (OTC) medications — including some pain medication combinations, decongestants and weight-loss products — contain caffeine and other stimulants.
Caffeine, nicotine and alcohol.Coffee, tea, cola and other caffeine-containing drinks are well-known stimulants. Drinking coffee in the late afternoon and later can keep you from falling asleep at night. Nicotine in tobacco products is another stimulant that can cause insomnia. Alcohol is a sedative that may help you fall asleep, but it prevents deeper stages of sleep and often causes you to awaken in the middle of the night.
Eating too much late in the evening.Having a light snack before bedtime is OK, but eating too much may cause you to feel physically uncomfortable while lying down, making it difficult to get to sleep. Many people also experience heartburn, a back flow of acid and food from the stomach into the esophagus after eating, which may keep you awake.
Insomnia and Aging
Insomnia becomes more common with age. As you get older, you may experience:
A change in sleep patterns.Sleep often becomes less restful as you age, and you may find that noise or other changes in your environment are more likely to wake you. With age, your internal clock often advances, which means you get tired earlier in the evening and wake up earlier in the morning. But older people generally still need the same amount of sleep as younger people do.
A change in activity.You may be less physically or socially active. A lack of activity can interfere with a good night's sleep. Also, the less active you are, the more likely you may be to take a daily nap, which can interfere with sleep at night.
A change in health.The chronic pain of conditions such as arthritis or back problems as well as depression, anxiety and stress can interfere with sleep. Older men often develop noncancerous enlargement of the prostate gland (benign prostatic hyperplasia), which can cause the need to urinate frequently, interrupting sleep. In women, menopausal hot flashes can be equally disruptive.
Other sleep-related disorders, such as sleep apnea and restless legs syndrome, also become more common with age. Sleep apnea causes you to stop breathing periodically throughout the night. Restless legs syndrome causes unpleasant sensations in your legs and an almost irresistible desire to move them, which may prevent you from falling asleep.
More medications.Older people typically use more prescription drugs than younger people do, which increases the chance of insomnia caused by a medication.
Sleep problems may be a concern for children and teenagers as well. However, some children and teens simply have trouble getting to sleep or resist a regular bedtime because their internal clocks are more delayed. They want to go to bed later and sleep later in the morning.
Risk Factors
Nearly everyone has an occasional sleepless night. But your risk of insomnia is greater if:
You're a woman.Women are much more likely to experience insomnia. Hormonal shifts during the menstrual cycle and in menopause may play a role. During menopause, night sweats and hot flashes often disturb sleep. Insomnia is also common with pregnancy.
You're older than age 60.Because of changes in sleep patterns and health, insomnia increases with age.
You have a mental health disorder.Many disorders — including depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder — disrupt sleep. Early-morning awakening is a classic symptom of depression.
You're under a lot of stress.Stressful events can cause temporary insomnia. And major or long-lasting stress, such as the death of a loved one or a divorce, can lead to chronic insomnia. Being poor or unemployed also increases the risk.
You work night or changing shifts.Working at night or frequently changing shifts increases your risk of insomnia.
You travel long distances.Jet lag from traveling across multiple time zones can cause insomnia.
Complications of Insomnia
Sleep is as important to your health as a healthy diet and regular exercise. Whatever your reason for sleep loss, insomnia can affect you both mentally and physically. People with insomnia report a lower quality of life compared with people who are sleeping well.
Complications of insomnia may include:
Lower performance on the job or at school
Slowed reaction time while driving and higher risk of accidents
Psychiatric problems, such as depression or an anxiety disorder
Overweight or obesity
Irritability
Increased risk and severity of long-term diseases or conditions, such as high blood pressure, heart disease and diabetes
Substance abuse
Seeking Treatment for Insomnia
If you're having sleep problems, you'll likely start by talking to your primary care doctor.These are some of the things you can do as you prepare to do so:
Ask if there's anything you need to do in advance, such as keeping a sleep diary. In a sleep diary, you record your sleep patterns — bedtime, number of hours slept, nighttime awakenings and awake time — as well as your daily routine, naps and how you feel during the day.
Make a list of any symptoms you're experiencing,including any that may seem unrelated to the reason for the appointment.
Take key personal information,including new or ongoing health problems, major stresses or recent life changes.
Make a list of all medications,vitamins, or herbal or other supplements that you're taking, including dosages. Let your doctor know about anything you've taken to help you sleep.
Take your bed partner along,if possible. Your doctor may want to talk to your partner to learn more about how much and how well you're sleeping.
Make a list of questions to askyour doctor, to make the most of your appointment time.
Some basic questions to ask your doctor include:
What is likely causing my insomnia?
What's the best treatment?
I have these other health conditions. How can I best manage them together?
Should I go to a sleep clinic? Will my insurance cover it?
Are there any brochures or other printed material that I can have? What websites do you recommend?
Lifestyle and Home Remedies
No matter what your age, insomnia usually is treatable. The key often lies in changes to your routine during the day and when you go to bed. Good sleep habits promote sound sleep and daytime alertness. These tips may help.
Basic tips:
Exercise and stay active.Activity helps promote a good night's sleep. Get at least 20 to 30 minutes of vigorous exercise daily at least five to six hours before bedtime.
Check your medications.If you take medications regularly, check with your doctor to see if they may be contributing to your insomnia. Also check the labels of OTC products to see if they contain caffeine or other stimulants, such as pseudoephedrine.
Avoid or limit naps.Naps can make it harder to fall asleep at night. If you can't get by without one, try to limit a nap to no more than 30 minutes and don't nap after 3 p.m.
Avoid or limit caffeine and alcohol and don't use nicotine. All of these can make it harder to sleep. Avoid caffeine after lunchtime. Avoiding alcohol can help prevent restless sleep and frequent awakenings.
Don't put up with pain.If a painful condition bothers you, make sure the pain reliever you take is effective enough to control pain while you're sleeping.
Stick to a sleep schedule.Keep your bedtime and wake time consistent from day to day, including on weekends.
At bedtime:
Avoid large meals and beverages before bed.A light snack is fine. But avoid eating too much late in the evening to reduce the chance of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and improve sleep. Drink less before bedtime so that you won't have to urinate as often.
Use your bed and bedroom only for sleeping or sex.Don't read, work or eat in bed. Avoid TV, computers, video games, smart phones or other screens just before bed, as the light can interfere with your sleep cycle.
Make your bedroom comfortable for sleep.Close your bedroom door or create a subtle background noise, such as a running fan, to help drown out other noises. Keep your bedroom temperature comfortable, usually cooler than during the day, and dark. Don't keep a computer or TV in your bedroom.
Hide the bedroom clocks.Set your alarm so that you know when to get up, but then hide all clocks in your bedroom, including your wristwatch and cellphone, so you don't worry about what time it is.
Find ways to relax.Try to put your worries and planning aside when you get into bed. A warm bath or a massage before bedtime can help prepare you for sleep. Create a relaxing bedtime ritual, such as reading, soft music, breathing exercises, yoga or prayer.
Avoid trying too hard to sleep.The harder you try, the more awake you'll become. Read in another room until you become very drowsy, then go to bed to sleep.
Get out of bed when you're not sleeping.Sleep as much as you need to feel rested, and then get out of bed. If you can't sleep, get out of bed after 20 minutes and do something relaxing, such as reading. Then try again to get to sleep.
For more information, please visit the following websites:
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Sleep is a Vast Subject and here is a list of Disorders Related to Sleep and sleep Disturbances...
Dyssomnias
Intrinsic sleep disorders
Extrinsic sleep disorders
Circadian-rhythm sleep disorders
Parasomnias
Arousal disorders
Sleep–wake transition disorders
Parasomnias usually associated with REM sleep
Other parasomnias
Sleep disorders associated with mental, neurologic, or other medical disorders
Associated with mental disorders
Associated with neurologic disorders
Associated with other medical disorders
Proposed sleep disorders
Dyssomnias
Intrinsic sleep disorders
Psychophysiologic insomnia
Sleep state misperception
Idiopathic insomnia
Narcolepsy
Recurrent hypersomnia
Idiopathic hypersomnia
Post-traumatic hypersomnia
Obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome
Central sleep apnoea syndrome
Central alveolar hypoventilation syndrome
Periodic limb movement disorder
Restless legs syndrome
Intrinsic sleep disorder NOS
Extrinsic sleep disorders
Inadequate sleep hygiene
Environmental sleep disorder
Altitudeinsomnia
Adjustment sleep disorder
Insufficient sleep syndrome
Limit-setting sleep disorder
Sleep-onset association disorder
Food allergyinsomnia
Nocturnal eating (drinking) syndrome
Hypnotic-dependent sleep disorder
Stimulant-dependent sleep disorder
Alcohol-dependent sleep disorder
Toxin-induced sleep disorder
Extrinsic sleep disorder NOS
Circadian-rhythm sleep disorders
Time zone change (jet lag) syndrome
Shift work sleep disorder
Irregular sleep–wake pattern
Delayed sleep–phase syndrome
Advanced sleep–phase syndrome
Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder
Circadian rhythm sleep disorder NOS
Parasomnias
Arousal disorders
Confusional arousals
Sleepwalking
Sleep terrors
Sleep–wake transition disorders
Rhythmic movement disorder
Sleep starts
Sleep talking
Nocturnal leg cramps
Parasomnias usually associated with REM sleep
Nightmares
Sleep paralysis
Impaired sleep-related penile erections
Sleep-related painful erections
REM sleep-related sinus arrest
REM sleep behavior disorder
Other parasomnias
Sleep bruxism
Sleep enuresis
Sleep-related abnormal swallowing syndrome
Nocturnal paroxysmal dystonia
Sudden unexplained nocturnal death syndrome
Primary snoring
Infant sleep apnea
Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome
Sudden infant death syndrome
Benign neonatal sleep myoclonus
Other parasomnia NOS
Sleep disorders associated with mental, neurologic, or other medical disorders
Associated with mental disorders
Psychoses
Mood disorders
Anxiety disorders
Panic disorders
Alcoholism
Associated with neurologic disorders
Cerebral degenerative disorders
Dementia
Parkinsonism
Fatal familialinsomnia
Sleep-relatedepilepsy
Electrical status epilepticus of sleep
Sleep-related headaches
Associated with other medical disorders
Sleeping sickness
Nocturnal cardiac ischemia
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Sleep-relatedasthma
Sleep-related gastroesophageal reflux
Peptic ulcer disease
Fibromyalgia
Proposed sleep disorders
Short sleeper
Long sleeper
Subwakefulness syndrome
Fragmentary myoclonus
Sleep hyperhidrosis
Menstrual-associated sleep disorder
Pregnancy-associated sleep disorder
Terrifying hypnagogic hallucinations
Sleep-related neurogenic tachypnea
Sleep-related laryngospasm
Sleep choking syndrome
American Academy of Sleep Medicine Classification of sleep disorders 2005
Insomnia
Sleep Related Breathing Disorders
Hypersomnias of Central Origin Not Due to a Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder, Sleep Related Breathing Disorder, or Other Cause of Disturbed Nocturnal Sleep
Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders
Parasomnias
Sleep Related Movement Disorders
Isolated Symptoms, Apparently Normal Variants and Unresolved Issues
Other Sleep Disorders
Insomnia
Adjustment Insomnia (Acute Insomnia)
Psychophysiological Insomnia
Paradoxical Insomnia
Idiopathic Insomnia
Insomnia Due to Mental Disorder
Inadequate Sleep Hygiene
Behavioral Insomnia of Childhood
Insomnia Due to Drug or Substance
Insomnia Due to Medical Condition
Insomnia Not Due to Substance or Known Physiological Condition
Unspecified (Nonorganic Insomnia, NOS)
Physiological (Organic) Insomnia, Unspecified
Sleep Related Breathing Disorders
Central Sleep Apnea Syndromes
Primary Central Sleep Apnea
Central Sleep Apnea Due to Cheyne Stokes Breathing Pattern
Central Sleep Apnea Due to High-Altitude Periodic Breathing
Central Sleep Apnea Due to Medical Condition Not Cheyne Stokes
Central Sleep Apnea Due to Drug or Substance
Primary Sleep Apnea of Infancy (Formerly Primary Sleep Apnea of Newborn)
Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndromes
Obstructive Sleep Apnea, Adult
Obstructive Sleep Apnoea, Pediatric
Sleep Related Hypoventilation/Hypoxemic Syndromes
Sleep Related Nonobstructive Alveolar Hypoventilation, Idiopathic
Congenital Central Alveolar Hypoventilation Syndrome
Sleep Related Hypoventilation/Hypoxemia Due to Medical Condition
Sleep Related Hypoventilation/Hypoxemia Due to Pulmonary Parenchymal or Vascular Pathology
Sleep Related Hypoventilation/Hypoxemia Due to Lower Airways Obstruction
Sleep Related Hypoventilation/Hypoxemia Due to Neuromuscular and Chest Wall Disorders
Other Sleep Related Breathing Disorder
Sleep Apnea/Sleep Related Breathing Disorder, Unspecified
Hypersomnias of Central Origin Not Due to a Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder, Sleep Related Breathing Disorder, or Other Cause of Disturbed Nocturnal Sleep
Narcolepsy With Cataplexy
Narcolepsy Without Cataplexy
Narcolepsy Due to Medical Condition
Narcolepsy, Unspecified
Recurrent Hypersomnia
Kleine-Levin Syndrome
Menstrual-Related Hypersomnia
Idiopathic Hypersomnia With Long Sleep Time
Idiopathic Hypersomnia Without Long Sleep Time
Behaviorally Induced Insufficient Sleep Syndrome
Hypersomnia Due to Medical Condition
Hypersomnia Due to Drug or Substance
Hypersomnia Not Due to Substance or Known Physiological Condition (Nonorganic Hypersomnia, NOS)
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